Video - Emphysematous Fetus

Video - Pink eye in calves - subconjunctival injection

Video - lacerated wound in cow udder (complicated wound)

Video - Ruminal Tympany - Bloat in Cattle

Bloat in Ruminant

Bloat is simply the accumulation of gas in the rumen. This gas is produced as part of the normal process of digestion, and is normally lost by eructation. Bloat occurs when this loss of gas is prevented.

There are two sorts of bloat. The least common type is gassy bloat, which occurs when the gullet is obstructed (often by foreign objects such as potatoes) or when the animal can’t burp (such as with milk fever or tetanus).

The second type of bloat is frothy bloat, which happens as the result of a stable foam developing on top of the rumen liquid, which blocks the release of the gas. This is by far the most common form of bloat, and unlike gassy bloat, it is highly seasonal with peaks in the spring and autumn. This is because the foam is formed by breakdown products from rapidly growing forages (particularly legumes such as clover and alfalfa). These increase the viscosity (stickiness) of the rumen fluid and prevent the small bubbles of gas formed by rumen fermentation from coming together to form free gas that can be belched off

Clinical Signs

• Distended left abdomen is the most obvious sign
• Usually associated with pain, discomfort, and bellowing.
• Death can occur within 2hrs  after the development of bloat
• Gaseous bloat is usually seen in one or two animals. Frothy bloat can affect up to 25% of cases
• In some cases sudden death may be the first sign seen

Diagnosis

• Clinical signs
• History of access to lush pasture
• Passing a stomach tube will distinguish between gassy and frothy bloat. If it’s gassy bloat a stomach tube passed into the rumen will allow the gas build-up to escape through the tube. No such gas is seen in frothy bloat.

Treatment

• Passing a stomach tube is the best treatment for gassy bloat. Once the gas has been released, the cause of the obstruction should be looked for.
• In a few cases a trochar and cannula punched through the side into the rumen will relieve gassy bloat when a stomach tube has not worked. But such cases are rare, and as the trochar provides a tremendous opportunity for introduction of infection, it should only be used as a last resort.
• For frothy bloat, antifoaming agents that disperse the foam should be given by stomach tube. Old-fashioned remedies such as linseed oil and turpentine are effective but newer treatments such as dimethicone or polaxolene are easier to give as the effective dose is much smaller.
• Injection of anti-histaminic drug
• If an outbreak of frothy bloat occurs all cattle on that pasture should be removed immediately and put onto a high fibre diet (hay or straw), and any cows showing bloating signs treated with an anti-foaming agent. The pasture should not be grazed for at least ten days.
•  

Abortion in cattle

Cows can suffer abnormalities during pregnancy leading to mummification of the foetus or resulting from maternal or foetal abnormality. All cases where the pregnancy terminates early and the foetus is expulsed are called abortions.

As there are multiple causes of abortion and the detection of abortions in a herd can vary significantly depending on the husbandry system and calving pattern, the incidence of abortion at herd level also varies markedly. 

It has been suggested that an abortion rate of 5% or more in a herd should be considered an indication of an abortion problem

Abortion may be classified to:
Infectious:

• Non-specific
• Specific

Miscellaneous:

1. Drug-induced (prostaglandins)
2. Insemination/intra-uterine infusion
3. Hypothyroidism
4. Trauma/stress (transport, noise, veterinary treatment etc.)
5. High fever and endotoxins (toxic plants, nitrate/nitrite, fungal toxins, other disease)
6. Nutritional (malnutrition, vitamin A/selenium/vitamin E deficiency, goitre)
7. Twin pregnancy
8. Genetic (malformation)

Both non-specific and specific infectious causes of abortion can lead to "abortion storms" in a herd, whereas the miscellaneous causes often result in sporadic, individual cases.
The most important infectious abortion agents are:

1. Brucellosis
2. Listeriosis
3. Leptospirosis
4. Neospora caninum abortion
5. Bovine Viral Diarrhoea (BVD)
6. Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis (IBR)
7. Campylobacteriosis 
8. Fungal/mycotic abortion
9. Epizootic/chlamydial abortion
10. Trichomoniasis

Brucellosis

Brucellosis (Bang's disease) is a threat in most countries where cattle are raised. In the USA, active control programs, including test, slaughter, and heifer vaccination, have greatly decreased its incidence. Brucellosis causes abortions in the second half of gestation (usually ~7 mo), and ~80% of unvaccinated cows in later gestation will abort if exposed to Brucella abortus. The organisms enter via mucous membranes and invade the udder, lymph nodes, and uterus, causing a placentitis, which may be acute or chronic. Abortion or stillbirth occurs 2 wk to 5 mo after initial infection. Affected cotyledons may be normal to necrotic, and red or yellow. The intercotyledonary area is focally thickened with a wet, leathery appearance. The fetus may be normal or autolytic with bronchopneumonia. Diagnosis can be made by maternal serology combined with fluorescent antibody staining of placenta and fetus or isolation of B abortus from placenta, fetus (abomasal content and lung), or uterine discharge. Prevention is by calfhood vaccination of heifers.

 

Listeriosis

Listeria monocytogenes can cause placentitis and fetal septicemia. Abortions are usually sporadic but may affect 10%–20% of a herd. Abortion is at any stage of gestation, and the dam may have fever and anorexia before the abortion; retained placenta is common. The fetus is retained for 2–3 days after death, so autolysis may be extensive. Fibrinous polyserositis and white necrotic foci in the liver and/or cotyledons are common. Diagnosis is by culture of Listeria from fetus or placenta. There is no available bacterin. Listeriosis is a reportable disease in many areas and is a serious zoonosis, with spread possible through improperly pasteurized milk.  

Leptospirosis

The pathogenic leptospires were formerly classified as serovars of Leptospira interrogans, but they have been reclassified into 7 species with >200 recognized serovars. Leptospira serovars Grippotyphosa, Pomona, Canicola, and Icterohaemorrhagiae usually cause abortions in the last trimester, 2–6 wk after maternal infection. Serovar Hardjo is host adapted to cattle and can establish lifelong infections in the kidneys and reproductive tracts. In addition to third trimester abortions, serovar Hardjo reduces conception rates in carrier cows and cows bred to carrier bulls.

Neosporosis

Neospora caninum is found worldwide and is the most common cause of abortion in dairy and beef cattle in many parts of the USA. Dogs and coyotes are definitive hosts for N caninum and can be the source of infection. Abortion can occur any time after 3 mo of gestation but is most common between 4 and 6 mo of gestation. Neospora can be associated with sporadic abortions or abortion storms, and repeat abortions in cows have been reported. Most infections result in an asymptomatic congenitally infected calf. Some infected calves are born with paralysis or proprioceptive deficits. Cows are not clinically ill, and placental retention is not common. The fetus is usually autolyzed or, in a few cases, mummified and rarely has gross lesions. Microscopically, nonsuppurative inflammation is common in the brain, heart, and skeletal muscles. Organisms can be identified in these tissues and the kidneys by immunohistochemical staining and PCR. Many late gestation fetuses have precolostral antibodies. They remain infected for years and possibly for life. Vertical transmission is common. During pregnancy, Neospora organisms can become activated and infect the fetus. This is thought to be the most common source of infection. There is no treatment. Strict hygiene to prevent fecal contamination of feed by dogs or coyotes may aid in prevention. A commercial vaccine is available.

Bovine Viral Diarrhea (BVD)

In several surveys, BVD was the most commonly diagnosed virus in bovine abortion cases. The pathology of BVD in the developing fetus is complex. Infection before insemination or during the first 40 days of pregnancy results in infertility or embryonic death. Infection between 40 and 125 days of pregnancy results in birth of persistently infected calves if the fetus survives. Fetal infection during the period of organogenesis (100–150 days) may result in congenital malformations of the CNS (cerebellar hypoplasia, hydrancephaly, hydrocephalus, microencephaly, and spinal cord hypoplasia). Congenital ocular defects have also been seen (cataracts, optic neuritis, retinal degeneration, microphthalmia). After 125 days of gestation, BVD may cause abortion, or the fetal immune response may clear the virus. Diagnosis is by identification of BVD virus by isolation, immunologic staining, PCR, or detection of precolostral antibodies in aborted calves. The virus is present in a wide variety of tissues, but the spleen is the tissue of choice. Rising antibody titers to BVD in aborting animals or herdmates is diagnostic of recent infection. BVD virus is immunosuppressive and is found in many fetuses infected by other agents (eg, bacteria, N caninum). Outbreaks of abortions by organisms that normally cause sporadic abortion should raise suspicion of possible concurrent BVD virus infection. Prevention should focus on removal of persistently infected cattle and herd vaccination.

Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis

Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR) is a major cause of viral abortion in the world, with abortion rates of 5%–60% in nonvaccinated herds. The virus is widespread, causes latent infections, and can recrudesce; therefore, any cow with a positive IBR titer is a possible carrier. The virus is carried to the placenta in WBCs; over the next 2 wk to 4 mo, it causes a placentitis, then infects the fetus and kills it in 24 hr. Abortion can occur any time but usually is from 4 mo to term. Autolysis is consistently present. Occasionally, there are small foci of necrosis in the liver, but in a large majority of cases there are no gross lesions in the placenta or fetus. Microscopically, small foci of necrosis with minimal inflammation are consistently present in the liver. Necrotizing vasculitis is common in the placenta. Diagnosis can be made by immunologic staining of the kidney, lung, liver, placenta, and adrenal glands. IBR virus can be isolated from ~50% of infected fetuses (most successfully from the placenta). In most cases, maternal titers have peaked by the time of abortion. In abortion storms, rising titers can often be demonstrated in herdmates. Control is by herd vaccination; intranasal, modified-live virus, and killed vaccines are available.  

Campylobacteriosis

Campylobacter fetus venerealis causes venereal disease that usually results in infertility or early embryonic death but occasionally causes abortion between 4 and 8 mo of gestation. C fetus fetus and C jejuni are transmitted by ingestion and subsequent hematogenous spread to the placenta. Both cause sporadic abortions, usually in the last half of gestation. The fetus can be fresh with partially expanded lungs or severely autolyzed. Mild fibrinous pleuritis and peritonitis may be noted, as well as bronchopneumonia. Placentitis is mild with hemorrhagic cotyledons and an edematous intercotyledonary area. Campylobacter spp can be identified by darkfield examination of abomasal contents or culture of placenta or abomasal contents. Isolation and identification of the species involved is important if vaccination is to be instituted. Venereal campylobacteriosis can be controlled by artificial insemination and vaccination. Campylobacter spp are zoonotic, and C jejuni is an important cause of enteritis in people

Mycotic Abortion

Fungal placentitis due to Aspergillus sp (septated fungi, 60%–80% of cases), or to Mucor sp, Absidia, Rhizopus sp, and a few other nonseptated fungi, is an important cause of bovine sporadic abortion. Abortions occur from 4 mo to term and are most common in winter. It is believed the fungi gain entry through the oral or respiratory tracts and travel hematogenously to the placenta. Placentitis is severe and necrotizing. Cotyledons are enlarged and necrotic with turned-in margins. The intercotyledonary area is thickened and leathery. Adventitious placentation is common. The fetus seldom is autolyzed, although it may be dehydrated; ~30% have gray ringworm-like skin lesions principally involving the head and shoulders. The diagnosis is based on the presence of fungal hyphae associated with necrotizing placentitis, dermatitis, or pneumonia. Fungi can also be isolated from the stomach contents, placenta, and skin lesions. Isolation must be correlated with microscopic and gross lesions to exclude contamination after abortion.

 

Chlamydiosis

Chlamydia abortus, the cause of enzootic abortion of ewes, causes sporadic abortion in cattle. Most abortions occur near the end of the last trimester, but they can occur earlier. Placental lesions consist of thickening and yellow-brown exudate adhered to the cotyledons and intercotyledonary areas. Histologically, placentitis is consistently present, and pneumonia and hepatitis can be found in some cases. C abortus can be identified by examination of stained smears of the placenta or by ELISA, fluorescent antibody staining, PCR, or isolation in embryonated chicken eggs or cell culture 

Trichomoniasis

Tritrichomonas foetus infection causes a venereal disease that usually results in infertility but occasionally causes abortion in the first half of gestation. Placentitis is relatively mild, with hemorrhagic cotyledons and thickened intercotyledonary areas covered with flocculent exudate. The placenta is often retained, and there may be pyometra. The fetus has no specific lesions, although T foetus can be found in abomasal contents, placental fluids, and uterine discharges. Infected cows typically clear the organism within 20 wk, but bulls, especially those infected after 3 yr of age, can become lifelong carriers. There is no legal, effective treatment for individual animals. Herd treatment is based on identifying and segregating pregnant females from “at-risk" females for ≥5 mo and by identifying and culling all infected bulls. Prevention is by artificial insemination or natural insemination using noninfected bulls. A killed, whole-cell vaccine is available for use in cows.

Anatomy of the Digestive System

Digestive system is uniquely constructed to perform its specialized function of turning food into the energy you need to survive and packaging the residue for waste disposal..

Mouth

The mouth is the beginning of the digestive tract; and, in fact, digestion starts here when taking the first bite of food. Chewing breaks the food into pieces that are more easily digested, while saliva mixes with food to begin the process of breaking it down into a form your body can absorb and use.

Esophagus

Located in throat near trachea (windpipe), the esophagus receives food from mouth when swallowing. By means of a series of muscular contractions called peristalsis, the esophagus delivers food to the stomach.

 

Stomach

The stomach is a hollow organ, or "container," that holds food while it is being mixed with enzymes that continue the process of breaking down food into a usable form. Cells in the lining of the stomach secrete a strong acid and powerful enzymes that are responsible for the breakdown process. When the contents of the stomach are sufficiently processed, they are released into the small intestine.

simple stomach of Horse

 

Compound stomach of Cattle

 

Small intestine

Made up of three segments — the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum — the small intestine is a 22-foot long muscular tube that breaks down food using enzymes released by the pancreas and bile from the liver. Peristalsis also is at work in this organ, moving food through and mixing it with digestive secretions from the pancreas and liver. The duodenum is largely responsible for the continuous breaking-down process, with the jejunum and ileum mainly responsible for absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream.
Contents of the small intestine start out semi-solid, and end in a liquid form after passing through the organ. Water, bile, enzymes, and mucous contribute to the change in consistency. Once the nutrients have been absorbed and the leftover-food residue liquid has passed through the small intestine, it then moves on to the large intestine, or colon.

Pancreas

The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the duodenum, the first segment of the small intestine. These enzymes break down protein, fats, and carbohydrates. The pancreas also makes insulin, secreting it directly into the bloodstream. Insulin is the chief hormone for metabolizing sugar.

Liver
The liver has multiple functions, but its main function within the digestive system is to process the nutrients absorbed from the small intestine. Bile from the liver secreted into the small intestine also plays an important role in digesting fat. In addition, the liver is the body’s chemical "factory." It takes the raw materials absorbed by the intestine and makes all the various chemicals the body needs to function. The liver also detoxifies potentially harmful chemicals. It breaks down and secretes many drugs.

Gallbladder
The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile, and then releases it into the duodenum to help absorb and digest fats.

Colon  .. large intestine
The colon is a 6-foot long muscular tube that connects the small intestine to the rectum. The large intestine is made up of the cecum, the ascending (right) colon, the transverse (across) colon, the descending (left) colon, and the sigmoid colon, which connects to the rectum. The appendix is a small tube attached to the cecum. The large intestine is a highly specialized organ that is responsible for processing waste so that emptying the bowels is easy and convenient.
Stool, or waste left over from the digestive process, is passed through the colon by means of peristalsis, first in a liquid state and ultimately in a solid form. As stool passes through the colon, water is removed. Stool is stored in the sigmoid (S-shaped) colon until a "mass movement" empties it into the rectum once or twice a day. It normally takes about 36 hours for stool to get through the colon. The stool itself is mostly food debris and bacteria. These bacteria perform several useful functions, such as synthesizing various vitamins, processing waste products and food particles, and protecting against harmful bacteria. When the descending colon becomes full of stool, or feces, it empties its contents into the rectum to begin the process of elimination.

Rectum
The rectum (Latin for "straight") is an 8-inch chamber that connects the colon to the anus. It is the rectum's job to receive stool from the colon, to let the person know that there is stool to be evacuated, and to hold the stool until evacuation happens. When anything (gas or stool) comes into the rectum, sensors send a message to the brain. The brain then decides if the rectal contents can be released or not. If they can, the sphincters relax and the rectum contracts, disposing its contents. If the contents cannot be disposed, the sphincter contracts and the rectum accommodates so that the sensation temporarily goes away.

Anus
The anus is the last part of the digestive tract. It is a 2-inch long canal consisting of the pelvic floor muscles and the two anal sphincters (internal and external). The lining of the upper anus is specialized to detect rectal contents. It lets you know whether the contents are liquid, gas, or solid. The anus is surrounded by sphincter muscles that are important in allowing control of stool. The pelvic floor muscle creates an angle between the rectum and the anus that stops stool from coming out when it is not supposed to. The internal sphincter is always tight, except when stool enters the rectum. It keeps us continent when we are asleep or otherwise unaware of the presence of stool. When we get an urge to go to the bathroom, we rely on our external sphincter to hold the stool until reaching a toilet, where it then relaxes to release the contents.

Cattle Behaviour and Welfare 2

Calf housing

In New Zealand calves are only housed for a very short time, as we want them to get outside and start grazing as early as possible to reduce costs.

Housed calves often suck the sides of the building and woodwork so it's important to make sure they cannot reach treated timber, old doors or the sides of the shed painted with old lead paint, and they cannot eat treated (arsenic) shavings used for bedding.
Veal calves are kept in narrow crates in Europe but these are banned in UK and not used in NZ.
The bobby calf pen is the main concern in NZ, but there are clear size specifications for this in the Welfare Code for Bobby Calves.

The “bobby“ calf

The bobby calf trade is a very important source of export income for dairy farmers.
Bobby calves go for high quality veal to the US.
The calf's stomach (vel) is used for the enzyme rennet used in the cheese industry.
The MAF Bobby Calf Code of Welfare states that a "bobby calf" must:
Be at least four days old.
Have a dry withered navel.
Have worn feet pads proving it has stood up and walked.
Be healthy and free of disease and injury.
Have been fed only on milk.
Calf pens have now been removed from the roadside to inside the farm gate to prevent welfare oncerns of those who pass by, especially tourists.
Bruising, skin damage and navel infection are the main causes of wastage.
Calves must be electrically stunned and then stuck (bled) immediately after stunning.
The main concern is transport. The code says they must reach destination within 8 hours of collection. This is often not achieved as meat works move them around to keep killing chains in business.

Premature calves for blood harvesting

These are calves born before time or induced (aborted).
Their blood is used for the special pharmaceutical export market.
They have not had colostrum and so have not ingested any antibodies.
There are very tight regulations on their transport, welfare and slaughter.


Weaning

Weaning is usually defined as the time when you stop feeding milk and this is best determined by weight rather than by age.
Dairy calves are generally weaned when they are eating at least 1kg of meal/head/day.
Single-suckled beef calves are weaned in autumn when they are generally about 6 months old. Here they do wean more on age than weight as it's a seasonal practice.
Weaning is a gradual process in dairy calves as they move from milk to meal, then from indoor pens to outside an on to pasture.
In suckling beef calves, weaning is much more of a shock as it all happens on one day. It's usually accompanied by a few days of roaring by both calf and cow trying to get back together.
It's a good idea to separate them by 2-3 well-fenced paddocks away from the house, as the stress and noise can go on for up to a week.

Baulking

This is a major problem in handling cattle in yards, when they stop or baulk and it breaks the flow, wastes time and the stock usually have to be pushed or goaded to proceed. The ideal is when stock just flow along races and don't need to be pushed.
The other dangerous area is when dairy cows leave the paddock through a gate to enter the race to walk to the farm dairy for milking. If not controlled by the stockperson, damage to hips and ribs can occur by the gate posts and cows can go down and be trampled on by others in the rush.
Injuries also happen during transport when cattle are moving off trucks through narrow doorways. They need to be given plenty of time so they don't get stuck in the doorway or bruise their hips on exit.

The main causes are:

Seeing disturbance ahead.
Noise ahead e.g. from shouting or banging gates or crushes.
Dead ends that block their view.
People standing in front of their point of balance.
Flapping clothes or sacking.
Cattle in adjacent pens moving against their flow.
Smells e.g. blood on floor after dehorning.
Unfamiliar yards.
Shadows, open doors, drains or what appear to them to be black holes.
Bright sunlight especially reflecting off windows.

Baulking can be prevented by:

Understanding and exploiting their point of balance.
Making sure stock can see through the head bail to what looks like freedom.
Handling stock in smaller pens.
Having a good footing for them.
Having solid boarding along sides of races.
Having a good clear entrances to yards so stock don't approach dark holes.
Avoiding dead ends and sharp corners. Provide a nice gradual curved flow.
Use rubber to quieten the banging from gates and headbails.
Teach handlers to keep the noise down and tie up and quieten all barking dogs.

The "Point of Balance"

This is an imaginary spot just behind the shoulder.
When you move in front of it, the animal moves back.
When you move behind it, the animal goes forward.
There is another point in the middle of the head.
When you move to the left of it the animal moves to the right, and vice versa

Milking

This is where knowledge of animal behaviour pays enormous dividends.
The goal is always - Fast and Efficient milking.
Milking needs to be fast to empty the udder quickly while the oxytocin stimulus is still effective (it lasts 5-7 minutes).
Milk letdown is caused by oxytocin and the cow has to be trained by conditioned reflex to have a letdown to suit the milking routine.
Milking needs to be efficient to completely evacuate the udder, and encourage more alveoli (milk cell) activity, and reduce possible infection (mastitis) from milk left in the udder.
Milking must be a “pleasant and positive” experience for the cow, and this has to be provided by the milker who "likes cows". It's as simple as that!
Research has shown how the "attitude" of the humans to the cows and milking has very measurable benefits from extra milk in the vat. The challenge is to teach the right "attitude" to the humans!
It's always been well accepted that women are better milkers than men and there's plenty of evidence to show that as good staff move - herd production also changed. Good people got high production from their cows wherever they went.
Cows must not get a negative experience in the milking parlour so use some other yard or a time other than milking to do anything that will distress them.
Design of milking parlour is vital for good milking performance as it inevitably affects both the cows and the staff.
Fit buzzers or bells to backing gates so cows become conditioned to the signal and move before the gate moves. This saves injuries to legs and reduces stress.

What milking cows hate

Be anthropomorphic and think about this list from the cow’s point of view.
Poor races that injure their feet.
Poor entrances to paddocks and the farm dairy that bang their hips and ribs.
To be touched without warning.
To be hit by sticks, especially as they are going into the bail.
Badly adjusted milking machines that hurt teats.
Cups falling off all the time and having to be put on again.
Sore teats- where the pain is made worse by milking.
Dark holes that appear to be full of predators.
Unfamiliar and sudden noises.
People shouting at them in loud, high-pitched voices that echo under the large roof of big rotaries.
Strangers in the milking bail – especially those who might be there to inflict some pain.
Stray electric shocks.
Poorly trained staff who hate cows. The cows soon find this out.
Monday mornings or mornings after favourite teams lose. Staff are not in good moods.
Tired exhausted staff, who have had little time off and who come to hate cows.
Staff arguing or fighting during milking. Domestics! Two staff versus one.
Staff coming off dope or alcoholic hangovers.
No warning when things happen to them – sudden frights.
Volume washing with cold water on their teats.
Having cups put on roughly, and removing them roughly before the vacuum is completely broken.
Backing gates that hit you in the hocks.
Electric backing gates with hot electric chains hanging down.
Being in a large herd and losing your mates.

Very hot conditions with no shade available in paddock or yard. Cows love a sprinkler on hot days to cool off after their walk to be milked.
No water trough at the dairy to have a drink after a long walk to the dairy for milking.
Flies - especially those that bite.
Slipping over on hard too-smooth concrete.
Banging heads or backs against badly designed pipe work.
Deep mud.
Eye contact by humans.
Small children in the dairy.
Dogs in the dairy.

What makes happy milkers?

Confidence with cows.
Equipment that does not keep breaking down.
Plenty of time off!
Nice quiet cows that don't kick. The cows know they are liked by the milker.
Cows with well-shaped udders and teats to make milking easy.
Cows that don't dung in the dairy (more than 2 dungs/HB row indicates problems).
Good drenching facilities so cows don't fight the operator.
The pit or rotary platform at a good height to avoid backache.
Non-slip floors for both humans and cows - especially on steps.
No piping to knock head or arms.
Well-aligned clusters so cows milk out correctly.
A kick rail behind cows for human safety.
Minimal noise from machinery.
System that allows cows to be milked in as short a time as possible.
A "thank you" from the boss now and again.
Good wages and conditions - often the conditions come first.

Signs of contented cows

They are keen to come in to be milked.
They stand quietly looking straight ahead .
Eyes bright and looking slightly down.
Chewing their cud.
Lying down with legs tucked under.
Breathing steadily through their nose.
Not concerned about the world around them.

Old research showed that cows could recognise about 100 other cows in the herd, and sort out a social order among them.
A happy and hence productive cow knows her place and generally keeps to it. There are big benefits of doing this.
What happens in grazing groups of 250 or 500 cows or more? ; we don't know! This needs to be studied with some urgency as herd sizes build.
When grazing, cows should be able to find enough personal space for comfort. But when you see large mobs grazing with great competition for feed, you must wonder about cow welfare.
When leaving the paddock, low-rank cows wait till higher-rank ones have walked past them.
Dominant cows can stop low-rank cows drinking as they stand and idle near the trough. So heifers may not get drink till night, which has serious effects on production.
Cows must have access to adequate water troughs with enough room around them and high enough pressure to keep them full all the time, otherwise low-rank cows won't drink.
Putting a trough in the fence line to share between paddocks and save cost is not effective as it can cut drinking access in large groups.
Social order is important when the whole herd is walking home for milking. There's no problem with them going back to the paddock after milking as they go back in small groups.
As herds get larger, walking distances get longer. Some do up to 2.5km in one trip.
You find some dominant cows at the front, many dominant cows in the middle acting as the driving force, and low ranking (especially heifers) and sick cows are at the rear.
So the cows at the rear get the pressure from the person, pushed by the bike, and bitten by the dog, and they are the animals who can least afford this distress.
Contented cows walk with head down, and stressed cows walk with head up and cannot see where they are stepping. They get sore feet and lameness is a major cost of $365/cow/year in lost production and vet charges.

Training heifers for milking

The first milkings can be very stressful for heifers if they have not been trained.
The term "breaking in" is regularly used and for many heifers - that's exactly what it is. It should be "training" and not breaking in!
Good training really starts during calf rearing so that they are used to close contact with humans when it comes to time for them to enter the herd.
Then a few weeks before calving, if reared away from home (the usual system), the heifers come back and join the herd. Here they sort out their social order and it can be quite stressful, especially if there are some very dominant old cows in the herd.
It's good practice to do the following:
First put them through the yards and the milking parlour with all gates open.
Repeat the exercise and then hold them in the yard.
Repeat this and hold them in the bail of the herringbone or put them on the rotary with it stopped.
Next time switch on the machine and play music to accustom them to usual sounds.
Walk around behind them, touch them and massage their teats and udders.
Have more than one person in the parlour, moving around and talking.

To ensure success at heifer's first milking:

Make sure the cups don't suck air and squeak.
Don't let the cups fall off among her feet.
Keep her head up.
Make sure she cannot turn round in the bail or jump out.
Avoid over-milking. In fact it's probably better to under-milk her.
Keep your cool.
Rub her tail head and talk to her (low tones) when cups are on. Massage her udder and talk to her in low voice tones.
Don't let her get sore teats.

In practice some farmers avoid all this saying they haven't got time. So they resort to some very inhumane practices like squeezing the heifer between two older cows and slap the cups on and even apply some violence if she plays up. If you need to resort to physical violence and lose your cool, blame your management and not the heifer.

Milking plant faults that affect behaviour

There are many basic faults in farm dairies that cause cow behaviour problems. even in expensive new installations. Some examples are:

Poor concrete work that is too smooth - so cows slip over.
Concrete that is too rough and wears feet.
Poor concrete reinforcing allowing stray voltage in the parlour.
Holding yards that are too small so cows are too tight.
Poor cow flow so backing gates are made bigger and better - and electrified!
Poor lighting in the parlour so cows are reluctant to go in.
Pipework that jams the head of the first cow in the herringbone when the exit gate is released.
Bails too small for large cows and are not adjustable during season.
Dark doorways that cows see as threats and cause panic.
Blind right angle bends when cows have to leave the parlour
Clusters not aligned correctly behind cows, so cups are pulled over and some teats do not milk out evenly.
Pits that are too low for the milkers so they end up with backache and the cows suffer.
Repairs to the milking plant that never get done and that frustrate tired milkers, and again the cows suffer.
It's a good idea when planning a new plant to visit other plants working and talk to the milkers - not the salesmen. Offer to help milk their cows to see how things work and note cow and human behaviour.
Count how many times the cows dung each row in the herringbone. If there are more than two/row, there is a behaviour/management problem.

Training cattle to lead

This is best done when calves. Put a halter on the calf and tie it up for short periods (e.g. 30 minutes) twice a day, and feed the calf when it is tied.
Groom and handle it when tied up.
Then move the feed away some distance and lead the calf to the feed.
Then start to lead it around without feed - giving it a gentle push from behind as well as some light pressure on the lead. Get someone to help do the pushing.
Teaching mature stock to lead is not easy as they are so strong.
Use the tie up technique (30 minute spells) for 2-3 periods each day for a week, grooming and massaging at the same time. Offer some feed too while grooming.
Then try leading over short distances with help from an assistant pushing the animal from behind when it baulks. Don't let it get away on you or it will remember its success and do it again. Wear safety boots with plenty of grip.
To get animals used to halters and restraint, some stockpersons tie two animals of similar weights together with a 500mm chain including a swivel, so they get used to their heads being pulled.
Try this trick with animals of different weight so the large one teaches the lighter one to lead.
Some stud breeders use a donkey to teach show cattle to lead. The donkey and cattle beast are tied together with a short chain and swivel and are left to graze together for a few weeks.
If you have to start with older heavier animals (e.g. Mature cows and bulls), then it‘s hard work and can be dangerous. Some stockmen halter the beast to a frontend loader set at the height of the human handler who stands in the correct position. The tractor is then slowly reversed for very short intervals till the beast realises it has to move forwards and follow the handler. This should only be done for short intervals.

Solving milking problems

This is big business for special consultants.
A major problem is poor cow flow from the paddock to the milking parlour.
It's a good idea to go back to the paddock and follow the cows home.
It's also a good idea to get down and see the world from cow eye height.
Problem may not always be where you think they are. Remember the cows can remember and may not go into the parlour because they are scared to go out e.g. a slippy floor.
ALWAYS start off by checking the milking machine. There is nothing more important in cow comfort.
It should have two checks by an approved service agent twice a year.
It's very revealing to video the milking and analyse it with the staff later. They often get some surprises to find the things they do and didn't realise it.

Welfare issues (dairy cows)

Calving problems – Dystocia.
Cow-calf separation - the stress involved.
Mastitis - the pain and stress.
The use of Intra Vaginal Devices and Inductions.
Lameness- the pain and stress of sore feet.
Metabolic diseases.
Downer cow management.
Flies.
Lack of shade and shelter
Horn damage
Dehorning/disbudding done without anaesthetics.
Ingrowing horns.
Tail docking - especially of adult cows.
Transport - the long distances cows travel to slaughter and cows ferry crossings.
Emaciation - skinny cows and why they are left to get to this state.

Welfare issues (beef cattle).

Transport and handling.
Metabolic diseases.
Parasites - internal and external.
Calving problems – Dystocia.
Lack of shade and shelter.
Flies.
Rubbish lying around farms.